I recently read an article by Mr. Sadok Raoui, former Senior Advisor to the Executive Board of the International Monetary Fund, who previously served as Director of the Banking Supervision Department at the Central Bank of Tunisia. In his article, he discussed the “negative list” published by the IMF for countries that are exceptionally late in completing their Article IV consultations. He pointed out that Tunisia has not conducted such a consultation since February 17, 2021, meaning more than five years. What makes the Tunisian case more interesting is that countries that were in much more complicated situations have started to restore their relations with the Fund. Venezuela, which has not completed an Article IV consultation since 2004, resumed its engagement with the IMF in 2026 after the issue of government recognition was settled. Syria, whose last consultation dates back to 2010, also witnessed a gradual return of IMF engagement with the authorities after the political transition. Even Yemen, despite the continuing war and humanitarian crisis, managed to resume the Article IV consultation process, and the IMF completed its consultation in March 2026 for the first time in more than eleven years.
I believe that it is therefore very important to reassess Tunisia’s relationship with the IMF and to reopen the debate around it by asking a broader question:
If Tunisia has really chosen to distance itself from the IMF as a sovereign choice, what has replaced it? Has the country really stopped borrowing from abroad? Has it really got rid of the “dictates” that were attributed to the Fund? More importantly, what is the financial and monetary cost of the way the state has replaced the financing that could have come from abroad?
1. Has Tunisia really stopped dealing with international financial institutions?
On April 6, 2023, President Kais Saied stated that “dictates coming from abroad that lead to further impoverishment are rejected”, and added that the alternative was “to rely on ourselves”. This statement was considered as reinforcing Tunisia’s national sovereignty and as a move towards self-reliance and reducing dependence on loans. This is a legitimate choice that can be assessed, and it raised expectations that Tunisia would stop dealing with international financial institutions that impose loans at high interest rates.
This can be seen, at first sight, through the decline in the share of external borrowing in total borrowing, which fell from around 75% in 2018 to 26% in the 2026 Budget Law (Figure 1). However, the decline in this share does not necessarily mean a decline in the amount of external borrowing, since the share of external borrowing can fall as a result of an increase in domestic borrowing. This becomes clear when comparing the two indicators: while the share of external borrowing in total borrowing has fallen, Figure 2 shows that the amount of external borrowing planned in the 2026 Budget Law has returned to 2019 levels.
The Minister of Economy and Planning also stated, during the deliberations of the Assembly of the People’s Representatives in July 2025, that “we have converted 11 loan agreements”. We have therefore compiled the main loans obtained by Tunisia since 2023, that is, after the negotiations with the IMF stalled (Table 1):
| Year | Lender | Amount (TND million) |
|---|---|---|
| 2023 | Afreximbank | 1,530 |
| 2023 | Saudi Arabia | 1,240 |
| 2023 | International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD) | 827 |
| 2023 | African Development Bank (AfDB) | 270 |
| 2024 | International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD) | 930 |
| 2024 | International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD) | 680 |
| 2024 | African Development Bank (AfDB) | 302 |
| 2024 | European Investment Bank (EIB) | 704 |
| 2024 | European Investment Bank (EIB) | 570 |
| 2024 | Afreximbank | 1,550 |
| 2025 | African Development Bank (AfDB) | 269 |
| 2025 | Islamic Trade Finance Corporation (ITFC) | 217 |
| 2025 | European Bank for Reconstruction and Development (EBRD) | 369 |
| 2025 | Islamic Trade Finance Corporation (ITFC) | 372 |
| 2026 | Afreximbank | 1,550 |
| 2026 | International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD) | 1,289 |
| 2026 | European Bank for Reconstruction and Development (EBRD) | 369 |
| 2023-2026 | Various loans: KfW, World Bank, JICA, EIB, FADES, AfDB, IFAD, AFD, GCF, EBRD, Saudi Fund for Development, Italy | 1,741 |
| Total (2023–2026) | ≈ 15,064 | |
Figure 1. Share of domestic and external borrowing in total budget financing, 2011–2026
% of total annual borrowing
Source: Ministry of Finance of Tunisia, 2011–2026.
Figure 2. Domestic and external borrowing, 2011–2026
TND million
Source: Ministry of Finance of Tunisia, 2011–2026.
All these figures therefore show that Tunisia’s dealings with international financial institutions have not stopped. They have continued at an increasing pace and may exceed the average levels of the 2011-2021 period by 2027.
At the same time, when we break down external loans, which fall into two types, we observe a decline in one type: programmed disbursements for budget financing (Figures 3 and 4), which are linked to reform programs. These declined until 2024, before returning to an upward path in 2025 and 2026, returning to the level of 2020.
In contrast, disbursements from earmarked external loans increased. These are financing flows directed towards infrastructure, energy, water, and specific sectoral projects.
Figure 3. External borrowing by source, 2011–2026
TND million — programmed disbursements, earmarked loans, re-lent loans
Source: Ministry of Finance of Tunisia, 2011–2026.
Figure 4. Share of external borrowing by source, 2011–2026
% of total external borrowing
Source: Ministry of Finance of Tunisia, 2011–2026.
The conclusion can therefore be that the policy of relying on ourselves has not, in practice, resulted in an end to external borrowing.
2. Has Tunisia really got rid of the IMF’s “dictates”?
Before starting the analysis, it is necessary to clarify the word “dictates”, which can be misleading, especially in media use, and is not economically precise. Any entity that lends to the state or to a consumer, whether it is the IMF, the World Bank, a commercial bank, or investors in financial markets, will require some form of guarantee regarding the ability to repay.
In the 2022-2023 program, the main proposed reforms focused on:
- Fuel subsidies: gradually reducing general energy subsidies and linking fuel prices to global prices, while directing subsidies towards the groups most in need.
- Social protection: expanding cash transfer programs and social safety nets to compensate vulnerable groups for the effects of reforming the subsidy system.
- Public-sector wage bill: limiting wage growth and controlling the wage bill, including limiting new recruitment, except in priority sectors.
- Public enterprises: reforming their governance, improving their performance, and reducing the financial risks they pose to the state budget.
- Tax system: broadening the tax base, reducing tax evasion, and integrating a larger part of the informal economy into the tax system.
- Tax fairness: increasing the contribution of different sectors and professions to tax revenues and reducing tax exemptions and loopholes.
- Public finances: reducing the budget deficit and putting public debt on a more sustainable path.
- Investment and competition: simplifying investment procedures, reforming the incentive system, and strengthening competition between firms.
- Governance and transparency: improving governance in the public sector, strengthening transparency, and fighting corruption.
- Monetary policy: maintaining a monetary policy aimed at containing inflation and supporting macroeconomic stability.
These measures are acceptable and logical given the state of Tunisia’s public finances. They also promote social fairness and strengthen competition, and are measures that could receive social support, unlike the statement made by the President of the Republic on June 3, 2023, when he said that the IMF’s recommendations “threaten social peace”, and that they could not be compared with the events of January 1984 that resulted from the removal of subsidies.
The paradox here is that the Tunisian government, which rejected these conditions that could be presented as threatening social peace, is in the process of implementing them in practice through:
- Public-sector recruitment: by not regularizing the situation of holders of higher education degrees, especially PhD holders.
- Wage bill: the stated target was to reduce it from 16.1% of GDP to 14.5%. It reached 13.9% in 2024 and 13.3% in 2025, meaning that the ratio has become lower than the target set in the program (Figure 5).
- Subsidies: through the removal of subsidies on some medicines on July 24, 2026. In addition, shortages of some basic goods in previous years can be considered an indirect measure to reduce subsidies.
- Broadening the tax base: tax revenues increased from TND 12.6 billion in 2016 to TND 20.5 billion in 2021.
In contrast, we have not seen significant progress in measures that could facilitate investment and strengthen competition and transparency.
Figure 5. Public-sector wage bill, 2011–2025
% of GDP
Source: Ministry of Finance of Tunisia, 2011–2026.
The conclusion can therefore be that Tunisia has not really moved away from the substance of several reforms that were proposed under the IMF program. Instead, it continued to implement some of them, although the way they were implemented and the context differed from the form proposed in the program. Therefore, moving away from the IMF did not necessarily mean abandoning these reforms, but rather changing the way they were decided, implemented, and financed.
3. The growing reliance on domestic debt and direct monetary financing: at what cost?
In the first section, we showed that the relative decline in external borrowing coincided with a large increase in domestic debt. This is highlighted by Ministry of Finance data, as the ratio of domestic public debt to GDP increased from 27.4% in 2018 to 64% in 2026 (Figure 6).
In addition, debt service increased from TND 3.3 billion in 2018 to TND 13.5 billion (Figure 7).
Figure 6. Domestic public debt, 2011–2026
% of GDP
Source: Ministry of Finance of Tunisia, 2011–2026.
Figure 7. Domestic public debt service, 2011–2026
TND million
Source: Ministry of Finance of Tunisia, 2011–2026.
This growing increase in domestic debt may have important consequences in several areas:
Crowding Out Effect
This effect appears when the state increasingly borrows from financial markets to finance its deficit, which increases the demand for loanable funds and therefore raises the real interest rate. Higher borrowing costs make investment financing more expensive for private firms, reducing their incentives to invest. As a result, part of the positive effect of public spending on economic activity is offset by lower private investment. In other words, public spending crowds out part of private investment spending. According to neoclassical theory, this effect limits the net increase in output that can result from an expansion of public spending (Figure 8).
Figure 8. How the crowding-out effect works (simplified)
Hover the equilibrium points and the bar below for a plain-language explanation
Author’s illustration, following the standard loanable-funds ("crowding-out") model. A simplified rendering of the same mechanism, not drawn to any particular country’s data.
This can be observed through the different World Bank indicators related to investment, which reflect the evolution of private investment and capital formation in Tunisia (Figures 9 and 10).
Figure 9. Gross capital formation, Tunisia, 2011–2025
% of GDP — World Bank indicator
Source: World Bank, World Development Indicators, series NE.GDI.TOTL.ZS (Gross capital formation, % of GDP).
Figure 10. Domestic credit to the private sector, Tunisia, 2011–2025
% of GDP — by banks vs. by the whole financial sector
Source: World Bank, World Development Indicators, series FD.AST.PRVT.GD.ZS (domestic credit to private sector by banks) and FS.AST.PRVT.GD.ZS (domestic credit to private sector, whole financial sector).
Inflationary effects
These effects are particularly visible as a result of direct monetary financing by the central bank. The government resorted to an exceptional mechanism of direct borrowing from the central bank. This happened first in 2020, with TND 2.81 billion, in the context of the COVID-19 crisis. This option returned in 2024, with TND 7 billion, after the legal framework relating to the independence of the central bank was amended, followed by another TND 7 billion in 2025.
When the state finances itself through the market, it uses liquidity that already exists. However, when financing comes directly from the central bank, this may lead to the creation of new liquidity. If this method becomes recurrent, it may increase inflationary pressures and weaken the separation between fiscal and monetary policy.
Conclusion: From “rejecting the dictates” to “implementing them at a higher cost”?
This article provides a reading of Tunisia’s relationship with the IMF away from the binary opposition between “sovereign independence” and “submission to the IMF”. Relations with countries and international institutions are built on a pragmatic basis, away from slogans. This article has shown that Tunisia did indeed abandon the agreement with the IMF, but with a cost that is not negligible and deserves to be reassessed in the future, especially regarding the need to restore our relationship with the IMF.
Tunisia can choose in the future to reject an IMF program, and this is a legitimate political decision that can be debated. But rejecting a creditor does not mean that the need for financing disappears, nor does it eliminate the constraints imposed by debt. The state will pay the cost of its deficit in one way or another: through higher interest rates, higher taxes, inflation, pressure on private investment, or a combination of these factors.
Therefore, the more precise question is not: did Tunisia borrow from the IMF or not? The question is: at what cost was the state financed, who bears this cost, and can the Tunisian economy grow fast enough to prevent debt from becoming an increasing burden?
In my view, this is the debate that should take its place instead of simply repeating the slogan of “financial sovereignty”. Financial sovereignty is not measured only by who controls the lending decision, but also by the state’s ability to finance itself in a sustainable way without making future generations pay for today’s decisions.
English version prepared from the Arabic draft.